[201] The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which in turn encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. [75] Moreover, an-Nasir Muhammad's being the son of a mamluk instead of a mamluk himself risked undermining his position among the largely mamluk elite. Stop procrastinating with our smart planner features. [203], Mamluk architecture is distinguished in part by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings. [90] However, power was in the hands of Barquq, as-Salih Hajji's regent; Barquq tried to succeed Ali as sultan, but his bid was vetoed by the other senior emirs. "[112] According to historian Michael Winter, "Turkishness" was the distinctive aspect of the Mamluk ruling elite, for only they knew how to speak Turkish and had Turkish names. [92] Barquq was arrested and exiled to al-Karak where he was able to rally support for his return to the throne. [122], The Mamluks sought to cultivate and utilize Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of the sultanate's Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. [67] An-Nasir Muhammad went further in imposing his rule by intervening to have al-Wathiq succeed Caliph al-Mustakfi, as well as compelling the qadi to issue legal rulings that advanced his interests. Most of the surviving examples of carpets, by contrast, date from the end of the Mamluk period. [15] Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking emir had a private mamluk corps. [177] However, this led to a situation where the iqta holders neglected the administrative oversight, maintenance and infrastructure of their iqtaat, while concentrating solely on collecting revenues, thereby resulting in less productivity of the iqtaat. Indian merchants brought textiles, beads, gold, silver, metal good, and religious objects to these regions. [35] Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son, al-Mansur Ali, as heir to the sultanate. [95] A major innovation to this system by Barquq was the division of Egypt into three provinces (niyabat) similar to the administrative divisions in Syria. Most of the Mamluks, especially in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks. [178] The Mamluks effectively put an end to this tendency, with the exception of some areas, namely in Mount Lebanon, where longtime Druze iqta holders, who became part of the halqa, were able to resist the abolition of their hereditary iqtaat. Either way, the Mamluks were proud of their heritage. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. [132][133][134][135] Others may have converted in order to retain employment. The Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri was warned by the Ottoman sultan Selim I that al-Ghawri was providing the envoys of the Ismail I safe passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. Ultimately, however, consensus settled on as-Salih's widow, Shajar ad-Durr. Mamluk leaders enjoyed lavish and luxury goods, displaying their power while simultaneously reminding them how far they had come from their slave caste roots. [40] Hulagu sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission to Mongol rule. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. [122] This policy change may have been partly motivated by a desire to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other madhabs were prevalent. [52] In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of Aydhab. [147], The Mamluk sultan was the ultimate government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as nuwwab as-saltana (deputy sultans, sing. [206][204], The cruciform or four-iwan floor plan was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional hypostyle mosque, although the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. Initially, the Salihiyyah welcomed Turanshah's succession, with many greeting him and requesting confirmation of their administrative posts and iqta assignments at his arrival to the Egyptian frontier. [142] Beyond his personal admiration of the Bedouin, an-Nasir Muhammad's motivation for distributing iqtaat to Al Fadl, especially under the leadership of Muhanna ibn Isa, was to prevent them from defecting to the Ilkhanate, which their leaders had done frequently in the first half of the 14th century. On January 25, the Mamluk Sultanate collapsed. While Inal and his close circle of officials were notably less tyrannical and brutal than their predecessors, the transgressions of the julban . [37] Qutuz deposed al-Mansur Ali in 1259. The current sultan, as-Salih Ayyub, of the Ayyubid dynasty, dies during their invasion. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. From bondservants to masters, the Islamic Mamluk warriors continued to prove themselves on the battlefield, in bureaucracy, and as exemplary leaders within the Medieval Dar Al-Islam. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) in the mid-13th-early 16th centuries. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". [100] However, following his death, a Circassian emir, Tatar, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the atabeg al-asakir and assumed power. [80] This unorthodox move, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother as-Salih Ismail in June 1342. [64], Qalawun was the last Salihi sultan and following his death in 1290, his son, al-Ashraf Khalil, drew his legitimacy as a Mamluk by emphasizing his lineage from Qalawun, thus inaugurating the Qalawuni period of Bahri rule. Much of the art in the Mamluk Sultanate was inspired by or purchased from trading partners in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean Sea Trades. By the 16th century, gunpowder was becoming increasingly popular and effective in combat, and the Mamluks were slow to the draw. [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. Free and expert-verified textbook solutions. [30] Aybak moved against the Bahriyyah in 1251 by shutting down their Rawda headquarters in a bid to sap Aktay's power base. Al-Maqrizi, al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar, Matabat aladab, Cairo 1996, This page was last edited on 9 January 2023, at 15:33. [199] One of the best examples of this period is the so-called Baptistre of Saint-Louis (kept at the Louvre today), a large brass basin inlaid with arabesques and horizontal scenes of animals, hunters, and riders playing polo. [17] As-Salih sought to create a paramilitary apparatus in Egypt loyal to himself, and his aggressive recruitment and promotion of mamluks led contemporaries to view Egypt as "Salihi-ridden", according to historian Winslow William Clifford. He took the attack to the Mongols. [157] Another prerogative, at least of the early Bahri sultans, was to import as many mamluks as possible into the sultanate, preferring those who originated from the territories of the Mongols. [169] The ustadar was often referred to as the ustadar al-aliyah (grand master of the house) to distinguish from ustadar saghirs (lesser majordomos) whose authority was subordinate to the ustadar al-aliyah and who oversaw specific aspects of the court and citadel, such as the sultan's treasury, private property and the kitchens of the citadel. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly illuminated and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. [71] In 1351, Hasan attempted to assert his executive power and was ousted by the senior emirs, led by Emir Taz, and replaced with his brother, as-Salih Salih. In the 28 October battle of Homs, the Mamluks routed the Ilkhanids and confirmed Mamluk dominance in Syria. [35] Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257,[35] possibly on the orders of Shajar al-Durr,[36] who was assassinated a week later. [195] These goods originated in Persia, India, and Southeast Asia and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. Test your knowledge with gamified quizzes. How did the Mamluks fair in combat against the Mongols? [93], Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son, an-Nasir Faraj, who was in Damascus at the time. Map 8.13. Commercial International Bank (CIB) Industrial Development Bank of Egypt. [144] Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and caused the destruction of cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. Art depicting the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. [181] Land was assessed by the periodic rawk (cadastral survey), which consisted of a survey of land parcels (measured by feddan units), assessment of land quality and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as waqf (trust) or iqta. Ceramic production was relatively less important overall, in part because Chinese porcelains were widely available. [87] To restore discipline and unity within the Mamluk state and military, Yalbugha applied the rigorous educational methods used for mamluks during the reigns of sultans Baybars and Qalawun. [169], The Mamluk economy essentially consisted of two spheres: the state economy, which was organized along the lines of an elite household and was controlled by a virtual caste government headed by the sultan, and the free market economy, which was the domain of society in general and which was associated with the native inhabitants in contrast to the ethnically foreign origins of the Mamluk ruling elite. [71] Most of his successors, except for an-Nasir Hasan (r. 13471351, 13541361) and al-Ashraf Sha'ban (r. 13631367), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. Their decoration consists almost entirely of Arabic calligraphy, with the thuluth script prominently used. [90] Nonetheless, in the following year, Barquq toppled as-Salih Hajji with the backing of Yalbugha's mamluks and assumed the sultanate, adopting the title of Baybars, "al-Malik az-Zahir". [28][33] The purge led to a dearth of military support for Aybak, which in turn led to Aybak's recruitment of new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from their Ayyubid masters, namely an-Nasir Yusuf, and moved to Egypt in 1250. The war started in 1516 which led to the later incorporation of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman Empire, with Mamluk cavalry proving no match for the Ottoman artillery and the janissaries. [19] As-Salih believed Damietta should not have been evacuated and was rumored to have threatened punitive action against the Damietta garrison. From the Medieval to the Early Modern Period, the Mamluks reigned during a transformative era in Dar Al-Islam as the Islamic Caliphates fell and new kinds of states arose, even states governed by former slaves. [101] The second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, which ended with the Aq Qoyonlu recognizing Mamluk suzerainty. [129], The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the Burji regime. [92][93] The rebels took over Syria and headed for Egypt, prompting Barquq to abdicate in favor of as-Salih Hajji. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. [136] The Maronite Church was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the high degree of relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. [110] The continuing invasions of Syria by Mongol armies led to further waves of Syrian immigrants, including scholars and artisans, to Egypt. na'ib as-saltana). Empire.) The Dar Al-Islam was on its heels, the Islamic Golden Age at its end. After thorough training in various fields such as martial arts, court etiquette and Islamic sciences, these slaves were freed. The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns. [185] Centralization over Syria and Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and the frequent invasions of the Syro-Palestinian territories. The Bahri sultans were usually selected from a few . Some manuscripts could be monumental in size; for example, one Qur'an manuscript produced for Sultan Sha'ban measured between 75 and 105 centimetres tall. Mamluk Sultanate. Due to the laws of the Islamic faith in the Medieval Era, it was illegal to enslave Muslims; however, any non-Muslim was allowed to be enslaved. [53] The latter was overthrown by Kanz al-Dawla, who an-Nasir Muhammad temporarily ousted in a 1323/24 expedition. She chose Aybak, a Mamluk commander. [148], A consistent accession process occurred with every new Mamluk sultan. [212][213] Domes also transitioned from wooden or brick structures, sometimes of bulbous shape, to pointed stone domes with complex geometric or arabesque motifs carved into their outer surfaces. Afterward, the Mamluks proceeded to recapture Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols. Keep reading to learn more about the Mamluk Sultanate environment, culture, and more. [191] By the 15th century, internal upheaval as a result on Mamluk power struggles, diminishing iqta revenues as a result of plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. While not just a stepping stone between eras, the Mamluks represented a progression from the world of fragmented and disparate Islamic states to largely Turkic powers that exemplified cultural diversity and innovation. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. In an attempt to dislodge Aybak, the Bahriyyah petitioned an-Nasir Yusuf to claim the Ayyubid throne and invade Egypt, but an-Nasir Yusuf initially refused. The halqa regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force. [123] Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrines were regarded [148] Under certain Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had paramountcy over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute. [90] Among the senior emirs who rose to prominence under Ali was Barquq, a Circassian mamluk of Yalbugha who was involved in Sha'ban's assassination,[89][90] and Baraka, another of Yalbugha's mamluks. [177] According to historian J. van Steenbergen, The iqta system was fundamental in assuring a legitimized, controlled and guaranteed access to the resources of the Syro-Egyptian realm to an upper level of Mamluk society that was primarily military in form and organization. 1. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains. Socit Arabe Internationale de Banque (SAIB) Blom Bank. Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. The Mamluk sultans are usually divided into two dynasties, the Bahris (1250-1382), chiefly Turks and Mongols, and the Burjis (1382-1517), chiefly Circassians who were chosen from the garrison of Cairo. The Mamluk sultans also controlled south-eastern Asia Minor and western Arabia. "[156] The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of khushdashiyya, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. Egypt and Syria already possessed a rich tradition of glassmaking prior to this period and Damascus was the most important production center during the Mamluk period. of the users don't pass the Mamluks quiz! [67] However, the Mamluks' enemies, such as the Mongol powers and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians and the Crusaders, successfully disrupted the flow of mamluks into the sultanate. [216] Some building types which first appeared in the late Mamluk period, such as sabil-kuttabs (a combination of sabil and kuttab) and multi-storied caravanserais (wikalas or khans), actually grew in number during the Ottoman period. The Abbasid Caliphate, for example, was ruled by caliphs, descendants of Muhammed, while the Mamluk Sultanate was ruled by non-descendant rulers: sultans. [189], Egypt and Syria played a central transit role in international trade in the Middle Ages. In 1263, Baybars deposed al-Mughith of al-Karak based on allegations of collaborating with the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia, and thus consolidated his authority over Muslim Syria. Baibars attempts to expand into Mongol Territory The seventh Crusade begins [177] The Mamluk state resolved to increase allotments by dispersing an individual emir's iqtaat over several provinces and for brief terms. Jamdariyyah) and Bahri (pl. At one point, a Caliph was installed to provide legitimacy to their state. [200], In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. Caliphs were descendants of the Prophet Muhammedthe founder of the Islamic faith. [13] Mamluks had formed a part of the state or military apparatus in Syria and Egypt since at least the 9th century, rising to become governing dynasties of Egypt and the Levant during the Tulunid and Ikhshidid periods. The muhtasib in Cairo was the most senior of the four and his position was akin to that of a finance minister. [45], Through opening diplomatic channels with the Mongols, Baybars also sought to stifle a potential alliance between the Mongols and the Christian powers of Europe, while also sowing divisions between the Mongol Ilkhanate and the Mongol Golden Horde. [184], In Egypt, Mamluk centralization over agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine for a number of reasons. The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns (figureheads). Crime and Punishment in Industrial Britain, Advantages of North and South in Civil War, African Americans in the Revolutionary War, Civil War Military Strategies of North and South, Environmental Effects of The Columbian Exchange, Native Americans in the Revolutionary War. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim I attacked the Dulkadirids, an Egyptian vassal, and sent their chief's head to al-Ghawri. [76] This permissiveness, which manifested in far more relaxed conditions for new mamluks, encouraged the pursuit of military careers in Egypt by aspiring mamluks outside of the country, to the point that parents would sell their children as mamluks with the belief the children would enjoy an improved standard of living. Then in the summer of 1260, the . Packed within defensive walls, the cities grew vertically, new temples and mosques built to tower over the older ones, only to be overshadowed by even newer buildings. Although he was assassinated years later, the precedent of a Mamluk rule was evident to all. In an event greatly favoring the Mamluks, the Mongol Empire's leader Mongke Khan died in 1259 at the precipice of Hulagu Khan's invasion of Africa. [171] Every agricultural commodity was taxed by the state, with the sultan's treasury taking the largest share of the revenues; emirs and major private brokers followed. [178] In the Mamluk era, the iqta was an emir's principal source of income,[179] and starting in 1337,[180] Mamluk iqta holders would lease or sell rights to their iqtaat to non-mamluks in order to derive greater revenues. [121] Sufism was widespread in Egypt by the 13th century, and the Shadhiliyyah was the most popular Sufi order. [173] Typically, a qadi or Muslim scholar would occupy the post, but in the 15th century, Mamluk emirs began to be appointed as muhtasibs in an effort to compensate emirs during cash shortages or as a result of the gradual shift of the muhtasib's role from the legal realm to one of enforcement.[175]. Inal's reign was particularly noted by historians for the severe absence of restraint among the roughly 1,000 mamluks under his direct authority, known as the julban or ajlab.The julban were responsible for mass disturbances throughout the sultanate. The Mamluks quickly rose from a caste of enslaved people to rulers within the Dar Al-Islam. 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